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 Exam 2 - Qualitative Research Methods

Comprehensive Exam Questions

Essay Questions

1. In their work, Naturalistic Inquiry, Lincoln and Guba explain that it is their belief linear relationships (cause and effect), the techniques used to measure them, and even the assumption that an ultimate reality exists “a priori” is only “naïve realism.”

  1. To what social science paradigm are they referring?
  2. Thinking back to discussions by Lofland and Lofland, Wolcott, and Howard Becker, describe what can be thought of as the main differences between these competing paradigms. What methodologies are most appropriate for which paradigm and why?

2. Some who work in the field of qualitative methods claim that such methods aim for truth with a small “t” and that there are techniques available to the researcher to insure a study’s integrity. Using approximately 6-7 pages address the following:

  1. What techniques can be employed and which of the following traditional aims do they address (i.e., validity, reliability, and generalizability)?
  2. Next, are there other, less positivist, aims that might be considered to replace or compliment those above? Please identify and explain any techniques that are associated with these aims.

3. What are the main circumstances (i.e., the questions raised at the data level) that cause the difference in qualitative and quantitative epistemologies. It was these differences that prompted Howard Becker to say he was more concerned about “practical epistemology” than “dogma” when it comes to qualitative and quantitative differences.

4. Norman Denzin states that triangulation can come in several ways. Identify each type and describe in detail their applicability to enhanced credibility. Are some more feasible than others for qualitative projects?

5. In their chapter, “Establishing Trustworthiness” Lincoln and Guba describe techniques intended to enhance trustworthiness and validity. They say that researchers may find it useful to pose four questions to themselves. These include truth value, applicability, consistency, and neutrality.

  1. What questions are associated with these terms?
  2. Provide an in-depth description of each category.

6. Lincoln and Guba suggest there are five techniques that can be used to enhance the trustworthiness of a project. Identify each technique and provide an in-depth description of each. Which ones do you find most helpful and why?

7. Because you are most likely to focus on depth and not breadth in qualitative research, most all of your samples will be purposeful (sometimes called judgment or purposive). However, as Patton reveals, there are several different strategies or subcategories of purposive sampling. The logic of each serves a particular purpose. Identify 6 of the 15 sampling strategies described by Patton and describe their purpose, providing an example of a sample for each category.

8. In the following essay:

  1. describe internal coherence, plausibility, and correspondence in writing up observations (“verisimilitude”)
  2. identify at least three other ways we can achieve credibility/validity in observation research.

9. In her reading, “The Logic of Grounded Theory,” Charmaz explains the dictates of Grounded Theory as proposed by Glaser and Strauss. According to Charmaz, grounded theory methods provide a systematic procedure for handling and shaping rich qualitative materials. She describes the six distinguishing characteristics of grounded theory methods. Identify 4 of the 6 characteristics and address in-depth their utility. Which of the 4 do you find most helpful and why?

10. Describe and discuss the philosophy and method of phenomenology and the use of this perspective for interviewing. Using examples from previous sociological research described in your readings, illustrate the advantages and potential limitations of the phenomenological interview. Compare and contrast this approach to qualitative methods with focus group interviews.

11. While most researchers believe that good sociological studies will incorporate both qualitative and quantitative methods into their practices, each methodological approach provide very different types of information. Using your knowledge and understanding of both qualitative and quantitative research methods, address the following questions:

  1. What are the general differences between qualitative and quantitative research methods? Make sure you outline the major goals of both.
  2. What are their strengths and weaknesses?
  3. How do they compliment one another?

12. In social science framing, the concepts of “trueness, newness, and importance are quite abstract” (Lofland, Snow, Anderson, and Lofland 2006: 169). Think back to your readings and discuss each of the three concepts as they relate to social science framing.

13. From the readings you learned that field research can be stressful in important ways. Thinking back to Analyzing Social Settings, describe at least three phenomena that can lead to both emotional and physical challenges. Next, what would you add to this list, given your own experience in the field?

Short Answer Questions

1. From your readings of Patton and Sampling issues, compare and contrast three sampling strategies.

2. What is the main difference between participant-observation and ethnography?

3. Define objectivity, subjectivity, and inter-subjectivity. What role does the research participant (i.e., informant) play in each?

4. Describe “norm of reciprocity” and provide 4 examples of how researchers might employ the concept.

5. Drawing from your readings, briefly discuss the utility of “memoing” in qualitative methods.

6. Why do some sociologists claim there is not a “grounded theory” theory but rather, a “grounded theory” method?

7. Identify two classic sociological works that used qualitative methods and two that employed quantitative methods to study a social phenomenon.

8. Drawing from your readings, what are the various observational techniques used by qualitative sociologists?

9. Drawing from your readings, compare and contrast three observational techniques.

10. Discuss three advantages of field research and three disadvantages. Use your readings to back up your arguments.

11. What role does active listening play in field methods?

12. Describe how you would deal with issues of confidentiality versus anonymity in qualitative research.

13. Surveys are often criticized for being biased by self-reports. How might you structure a qualitative sample to reduce this bias?

14. Describe saturation and provide one example for qualitative researchers.

15. Define and contrast the following: indigenous meanings versus exogenous meanings. How do field researchers attend to both?

16. Thinking back to your readings, what are the main differences between description and analysis?

17. From the list below, provide examples of 3 types of interview questions.

  • Grand tour Descriptive
  • Mini-grand tour Included term
  • FeelingContrast verification
  • StructuralExperience

18. Drawing from your readings, compare and contrast “peer debriefing” and “member checks.”

19. Choose three of the following sampling types and describe each, providing an example.

  • PurposiveTheoretical
  • Confirming Maximum variation
  • Opportunistic Convenience
  • DeviantCriterion
  • Typical case Snowball stratified

20. Define and provide examples of both “a-priori” codes and “data specific” codes.

21. Define axial, selective, and theoretical coding and their respective roles in the analysis of data. Provide an example of each.

22. Compare and contrast the qualitative interview guides and the survey questionnaire. What are the main benefits of each?

Concepts List

Ontological Perspectives

  • Deductive versus Inductive
  • Subjectivity and Field Research
  • Objectivity and Field Research
  • Intersubjectivity and Field Research
  • Reflexivity of Researcher
  • Ethics of Field Research
  • Human Subjects and IRB

Theoretical Traditions in Qualitative Research

  • Phenomenology
  • Heuristic Inquiry
  • Ethnomethodology
  • Symbolic Interaction
  • Hermeneutics
  • Narrative Analysis
  • Grounded Theory (as method)
  • Social Constructionism
  • Feminist

Data Collection: Various Types

  • Critical Ethnography
  • Discourse Analysis versus Critical Discourse
  • Content Analysis
  • Oral Histories
  • Documents
  • Oral Histories
  • Interviews
  • Focus Groups
  • Fieldnotes
  • Ethnography
  • Auto-ethnography
  • Participant Observation

Research Design

  • Units of Analysis
  • Researcher Roles
  • Known versus Unknown Investigators
  • Observation
  • Participant as Observer
  • Observer as Participant
  • Self as Subject
  • Membership Roles
  • Emotionality in Field Research

Sampling Issues:

  • Types of Samples
  • Purposive, Theoretical, Confirming, Maximum Variation,
  • Opportunistic, Convenience, Deviant,
  • Extreme, Typical Case, Snowball, Criterion, etc.

Techniques

  • Interviewing: Variations
  • Styles (Conversation, Semi-structured, Structured)
  • Probes
  • Question Types
  • (e.g., Descriptive, Grand Tour, Structural, Contrast, etc.)
  • Gaining Entry
  • Team versus Individual
  • Self Disclosure and Rapport Building
  • Observational Techniques Variations
  • What to look for in the field: (indigenous meanings, key events, etc.)
  • Exiting the Field (Norms of Reciprocity)
  • Saturation
  • Variations in Fieldnotes
  • (Jottings versus Expanded)

Organizing and Indexing Qualitative Data

  • Fieldnote Excerpts: Transforming Data Into Narrative
  • Use of Visual Methods and Documents
  • Use of Software
  • Coding Schemes A-priori versus Data Specific
  • Reducing Problems in Coding
  • Initial versus Focused Coding
  • Axial, Selective, Theoretical
  • Memo Writing
  • Theoretical Saturation
  • Diagramming and Integrating Data Into Reports
  • Description versus Analysis

Evaluating Qualitative Works

  • Issues of Validity and Reliability: Positivist versus. Interpretivist
  • Internal versus External – Interpretivist Responses
  • (Credibility, Transferability, Dependability, Confirmability)
  • Prolonged Engagement
  • Audit Trails
  • Peer Debriefing
  • Member Checks
  • Negative Cases
  • Selectivity Bias
  • Triangulation – Varieties of
  • (Sources, Methods, Investigators, Theories)


Reading for Qualitative Section from Holyfield’s class

  • Adler and Adler, 1990. “Observational Techniques” in Handbook of Qualitative Research (1st Edition). Denzin and Lincoln (ed). Pp.377-391
  • Becker, Howard. 2003. “The Epistemology of Qualitative Research” in Contemporary Field Research: Perspectives and Formulations. Robert Emerson (ed.) Pp.317-334. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
  • 2003. “Grounded Theory “in Contemporary Field Research: Perspectives and Formulations. Robert Emerson (ed.) Pp.335-352. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
  • Denzin and Lincoln?? 2006/07 Handbook of Qualitative Research. Sage.
  • Emerson, Robert, Rachel Fretz, and Linda Shaw. 1995. Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes. Chicago: University and Chicago Press
  • Golafshani, Nahid.  2003.  "Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research", The Qualitative Report, Vol. 8 (4):597-607.
  • Lincoln, Yvonna and Egon Guba. 1984. “Establishing Trustworthiness” Chapter 11 in Naturalistic Inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
  • Lofland, John, David A. Snow, Leo Anderson, and Lyn H. Lofland. 2006. Analyzing Social Settings:  A Guide to Qualitative Observation and Analysis. Belmont CA: Wadsworth.
  • Mason, Jennifer. 2002. Qualitative Researching (2nd Edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Patton, Michael. 2002. 3rd edition. Qualitative Methods and Evaluation Research. Pp. 230 – 248. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
  • Westmarland, Nicole. 2001. "The Quant/Qual Debate and Feminist Research:  A Subjective Vie of Objectivity." Forum: Qualitative Social Reseach. Vol 2(1)
  • Wolcott, Harry. 2001. Writing Up Qualitative Research Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.